New Testament

 

Overall Content

Christian Canon

• Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke are the “synoptic gospels.” See Topics in Modern Biblical Scholarship: Sources.)

  • Matthew

  • Mark

  • Luke

  • John

• Acts of the Apostles (written by the author of Luke)

• Letters or epistles

  • Pauline letters (Scholars think that not all were actually written by Paul.)

    • Romans

    • 1 Corinthians

    • 2 Corinthians

    • Galatians

    • Ephesians

    • Philippians

    • Colossians

    • 1 Thessalonians

    • 2 Thessalonians

    • 1 Timothy

    • 2 Timothy

    • Titus

    • Philemon

  • Hebrews

  • James

  • 1 Peter

  • 2 Peter

  • 2 John

  • 3 John

  • Jude

• Apocalyptic Literature

  • Revelation

 

Important People

Aquila and Priscilla (Prisca): a Jewish husband and wife who worked as missionaries in Corinth and hosted Paul during his time there (Acts 18; 1 Cor. 16:19)

Ananias

1. A Christian in Jerusalem struck dead with his wife, Sapphira, after offering only part of his property to the Apostles (Acts 5)

2. A Christian who met and cared for Paul in Damascus after Paul’s vision of Jesus on the road, and was present at Paul’s baptism (Acts 9)

3. The Jewish high priest who presided over a council in Jerusalem before which Paul is brought (Acts 23)

Apollos: a Christian missionary in Alexandria and Corinth, where he had a sizable following (see 1 Cor. 1:12; 3:4–22). According to Acts, until Priscilla and Aquila instructed Apollos, all he knew about Jesus was the story of Jesus’ baptism by John (Acts 18:24–28).

Barnabas: an important early missionary who worked with Paul in Antioch (Acts 11), Cyprus (Acts 13), and Iconium (Acts 14), until they separated after a dispute over the role of John Mark (Acts 15:35–39)

“Beloved disciple”

• A nameless follower of Jesus in John’s Gospel who appears in the Passion narrative. Also called “the disciple Jesus loved” or“ the other disciple” (John 19–20).

• Traditionally associated with John, son of Zebedee

• There was an apparent rivalry between the beloved disciple and Peter over who first witnessed the risen Christ (John 20).

Cornelius: Roman military officer in Caesarea (Palestine) who was one of the first and most important Gentile converts to the church (Acts 10–11)

James

1. The son of Zebedee and one of Jesus’ earliest followers (along with his brother John) (Matt. 4:21 / Mark 1:19)

2. The brother of Jesus and a leader of the Jerusalem community

   • Assumed a position of leadership only after the crucifixion (see Acts 15:13; 21:18)

   • Connected with the more Jewishly conservative wing of the early church, whose followers apparently sought to disrupt Paul’s Jewish law–free mission to the Gentiles (Gal. 2:12)

   • Traditional author of letter in his name, though many scholars doubt this attribution because the letter shows no evidence of its writer having been an observant Jew

John the Baptist

• Charismatic and ascetic religious leader, who sought to reinvigorate God’s covenant with the Jews through the ritual of baptism for the remission of sins, performed at the Jordan River

• Seen by Jesus’ followers as a forerunner of the Messiah, though emphasis on John’s lowliness (Matt. 3:11 / Mark 1:7 / Luke 3:16) may conceal a lively rivalry between the followers of the two men

• According to Luke, Jesus’ mother, Mary, and John’s mother, Elizabeth, were relatives (Luke 1).

Judas Iscariot

• One of Jesus’ 12 disciples, responsible for handling the group’s money (John 12, 13)

• Betrayed Jesus with a kiss to the Jewish authorities for 30 pieces of silver (Matt. 26; Mark 14; Luke 22; John 18)

• Different accounts of his death in Matt. 27; Acts 1

Lazarus

1. Brother of Mary and Martha who lived in Bethany and hosted Jesus several times (Luke 10; John 12). Raised from the dead by Jesus following confessions of faith by his sisters (John 11).

2. Poor beggar in a parable who is raised to heaven while the miserly rich man is sent to hell (Luke 16)

Mary Magdalene: member of the inner circle of Jesus’ followers, present at the Crucifixion and Resurrection (details vary between the Gospels; see Matt. 27–28; Mark 16; Luke 24; John 20)

Mary, mother of Jesus: Present at a few important scenes, such as the wedding at Cana (John 2) and the Crucifixion (John19:25–27). Most detailed biography given in Luke 1–2.

Paul

• Originally, a Pharisaic Jew who persecuted the earliest Christians (Gal. 1; Phil. 3; see also Acts 7–9)

• According to Acts (where he is also named Saul), he becomes an advocate of faith in Christ following an encounter with Jesus on the road to Damascus (Acts 9, 22, 26).

• As a missionary, founded churches composed mainly of Gentile believers throughout the eastern Mediterranean (Acts 7–28)

• A Roman citizen; tradition holds that he was martyred in Rome after appealing his condemnation by Jewish authorities to the emperor (Acts 21–28).

Peter (also known as Simeon [Simon] and Cephas [“rock”])

1. One of the most prominent of Jesus’ disciples

2. Famous for affirming that Jesus was the messiah of Israel, and assigned a position of future leadership (Matt. 16:16–23)

3. Sometimes presented unfavorably, as when he denies Jesus three times before the Crucifixion (Matt. 26:69–75 / Mark 14:66–72 / Luke 22:54–62 / John 18:25–27)

4. Leader of the early Jerusalem church

   • Made public missionary speeches to the Jews (Acts 2–4)

   • Initiated the conversion of the Gentile Cornelius (Acts 10)

   • One of the leaders at the Jerusalem meeting who formulated a policy for proselytizing among Gentiles (Acts 15)

   • Traditional author of 1 and 2 Peter, though many scholars doubt this attribution because the Greek is more elevated than would be expected from a Galilean fisherman and the conficts he discusses are more characteristic of those in the later church

5. Regarded as the first pope by Catholics

Pilate: Roman-appointed governor of Judea, represented as brutal in Josephus and even in the New Testament (see Luke 13:1), but otherwise in the New Testament depicted as only reluctantly agreeing with the Jews’ demand to execute Jesus

Stephen: first Christian martyr (after Jesus), killed by a mob in Jerusalem (Acts 7)

Thomas: an apostle, present in all four gospels but prominent only in John, where he challenges the resurrected Jesus to provide proof of his physical presence (John 20:24–29)

Timothy

• Son of a gentile father and Jewish mother; circumcised by Paul to appease Jewish Christians (Acts 16:3)

• A companion to Paul on his missionary travels and the traditional recipient of the epistles to Timothy (Acts 16–20; 1 & 2 Tim.)

Titus: Paul’s Gentile missionary companion (see 2 Cor. 7–8; Gal. 2)

 

Paul’s Authentic Letters

The following Letters are listed in chronological order (though dates are uncertain).

Thessalonians

• Because Paul praises the recipients for having “turned to God from idols” (1:9) and makes no explicit references to the Bible, it seems likely that the congregation was composed entirely of Gentiles (unlike other churches, where it was more likely that members were drawn from among Jews and Gentiles).

• Some scholars doubt that Paul wrote the harsh indictment of the Jews in 2:14–16, which seems out of place both in this letter and in light of Paul’s other letters.

• As evidence of the community’s intense expectation of the end-times, they appear concerned that some members have died before Jesus returned, and Paul therefore reassures them with a vivid description of the parousia (4:14–17).

Philippians (This letter may actually have been written later in Paul’s career.)

• The abrupt transition between 3:1 and 3:2, when Paul’s rhetoric becomes far more hostile, may suggest that two letters were joined in one.

• One of the few instances in which Paul provides autobiographical information, in 3:4–6

• Christ hymn in 2:6–11 is likely pre-Pauline, and incorporated (and possibly edited) by Paul into his letter.

• Paul’s opponents in 3:2 are likely to have been“ Judaizers” (see Glossary), who, unlike Paul, did not expect Gentiles to observe Jewish law.

Philemon

• In this letter, Paul is at his most diplomatic, asking freedom for a runaway Christian slave, Onesimus, from his owner, Philemon (who seems to have had good reason to resent the request).

Galatians

• Paul harshly warns the Galatians against observing Jewish law, which itinerant Judaizing missionaries demanded.

• The competing missionaries (who Paul calls “false believers,” in 2:4) have the backing of some members of the church in Jerusalem (2:12), which serves as evidence of the widespread hostility many other followers of Jesus felt toward Paul because of his law-free mission.

• Paul is angered over Peter’s withdrawal from eating with Gentiles. The visiting missionaries, who convinced Peter that, as a Jew, he ought to be more scrupulous in observing Jewish dietary laws, undermined Paul’s belief in the equality of all believers—Jews and Gentiles alike—within the Christian community and introduced divisions into the church (see Gal. 3:28–29).

• Paul’s failure to note that he convinced Peter may suggest that Paul lost the argument.

• The meeting Paul says he attended in Jerusalem is also narrated in Acts 15, with some differences.

• Paul provides helpful autobiographical information in 1:11–24.

• Paul’s failure to mention that he spent time as a missionary to the Jews before becoming a missionary to the Gentiles (1:15–2:1) differs from the evidence in Acts (see Acts 13–14; 17–18; see also 1 Cor. 9:20).

Corinthians

• Because strong personal conflicts appear to have divided the church, Paul’s focus is on unity (see 3; 12).

• The letter contains Paul’s advice on many issues of morality, sexual ethics, participation in pagan religious rituals, management of conflict, and the role of women, probably in response to prior requests for his guidance.

• Paul’s ethical views on topics such as slavery and abstinence are all informed by his expectation of an imminent end (see 7:1–40).

• Paul’s lengthy discussion of the fate of the dead contains many affinities with contemporary Jewish beliefs about bodily resurrection, which many Greek philosophers rejected in favor of a belief that only the soul was resurrected (15).

2 Corinthians

• Likely composed of parts of other letters. Scholars note three main sections: 1–7; 8–9; 10–13.

• Paul’s opponents in 10–13 are likely to have been Judaizers. In his opposition to their attempts to convince Gentile believers to observe Jewish law, Paul produces one of his harshest polemics against Judaism, arguing that only those who believe in Christ are able to understand the promises of the Bible, which remain hidden to unbelieving Israel (see also 3:4–4:6).

• Paul hoped that the contributions he collected from members of the mostly Gentile churches he founded would be accepted by the leaders in Jerusalem as a symbol of unity between Jewish and Gentile Christians (8–9; see also 1 Cor. 16). However, his concern that it would not be accepted (see Rom. 15:25–31) and the absence of any mention of the collection in Acts’ heroic portrait of Paul suggests that it was refused, possibly because of hostility to Paul and his law-free mission. This possibility receives further support in the strong opposition Paul frequently faced from other Christians, who suspected that he was undermining the observance of Jewish law by all believers (see also Acts 21:21).

Romans

• Widely considered Paul’s last and most theologically complex letter

• Contains Paul’s fullest treatment of his idea of justification by faith, in which faith in the death and resurrection of Jesus is alone sufficient for salvation (see 10:9). Paul says Jews and Gentiles alike are burdened by sin that is only overcome through faith.

• Paul’s passionate and anguished discussion of the fate of nonbelieving Jews in 9–11 reveals a profoundly troubling issue in the early church: the widespread reluctance of most Jews to accept Christian preaching about Jesus, which might lead some Christians to worry that if God’s original choice of Israel as his chosen people could be canceled because of the Jews’ failure to heed the Christian message, then God’s promises to the Christians might also be untrustworthy.

• Disagreement and conflict between Jewish and Gentile Christians in Rome threatened church unity, and Paul advocates toleration of difference, especially of Jews (“the weak” in 15:1) who observe Jewish law.

• Paul’s attitude toward the ruling authorities (13:1–7) is generally positive, though his expectation of an imminent end means that his advice may be based largely on expedience. (For other examples of this conservative attitude toward ruling authorities, see 1 Pet. 2:13–14; 1 Tim. 2:1–2.)

 

Topics in Modern Biblical Scholarship

Sources

All of these sources are based on generally accepted scholarly hypotheses, unless otherwise indicated.

• John’s Prologue: an apparently self-contained poetic or hymnic source, which possibly existed independently and was later joined to John’s gospel (1:1–18)

• Passion source: a possible early narrative of Jesus’ suffering and death used in Matt. 26–27 / Mark 14–15 / Luke 22–23 / John 18–19

• Sayings source: the source of Jesus’ speeches in John, though there is a dispute among scholars over whether this was a discrete, fixed source or just a collection of individual sayings (John 13–17)

• Signs source: the source of the seven miracle stories in the first half of John; see John 20:30–31: “Now Jesus did many other signs in the presence of his disciples…”

• Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke, which share many stories and often use nearly identical language (unlike John, which has significant differences in chronology and theology); from the Greek for “seen together,” because when arranged in parallel columns the similarities can be seen

• Synoptic problem: Matthew, Mark, and Luke have both many similarities and significant differences, raising questions about the relationship between the three Gospels. The lengthy verbatim passages suggest a common, written source.

  • Two-source hypothesis (sometimes called the “four-source hypothesis”): The attempt to solve the synoptic problem by hypothesizing that Mark, or an earlier form of Mark, and Q (the “two sources”) were the earlier sources used by Matthew and Luke, which are both longer and appear to have supplemented their sources with their own unique material.

    Mark: the earliest Synoptic Gospel and a source (whether in the present or an earlier form) for much of Matthew and Luke; in these three gospels, source material is presented in a similar order.

    Proto-Matthew (M) and Proto-Luke (L): the material that was incorporated into Matthew and Mark, respectively, along with Mark and Q.

    Q (for “Quelle,” German for “source”): a reconstructed source, containing material present in Matthew and Luke but missing in Mark; dated a few decades after Jesus; almost entirely comprised of sayings with little narrative content (hence, no Passion or Crucifixion) and filled with eschatological warnings and parables; includes passages such as the temptations of the Devil, the Beatitudes, and warnings of the imminent end.

Authorship of the Pauline Letters

• Letters most scholars believe were written by Paul

  The topics of these letters are those debated in the mid–first century CE, when Paul was active as a missionary. The topics include: the relationship between Christian and non-Christian Jews, the importance of Jewish law, establishing church order at a time when formal offices did not yet exist, and an intense expectation of an imminent end.

  • Romans

  • 1 Corinthians

  • 2 Corinthians

  • Philippians

  • Galatians

  • 1 Thessalonians

  • Philemon

• Letters scholars believe Paul may have authored

  These letters contain some similarities to the authentic letters, but also significant differences in both content and style.

  • Ephesians

  • Colossians

  • 2 Thessalonians

• Letters most scholars believe were unlikely to have been written by Paul

  The topics of the letters reflect late 1st and early 2nd c. CE concerns, a few decades after Paul’s death. The letters include almost no interest in the relationship between Christian and non-Christian Jews, and no evidence for continuing disputes over the importance of Jewish law. Jerusalem is no longer referred to as the center of the church, which it was before 70 CE and the Jewish war against Rome. The letters do reveal an interest in establishing conventional social norms, especially regarding gender roles, and a concern for how Christians’ behavior appears to outsiders. The vocabulary and meaning of important theological terms also differs significantly from the vocabulary in the authentic letters.

  • 1 Timothy

  • 2 Timothy

  • Titus

 

“Historical Jesus” Studies

There exists hardly any non-Christian information about Jesus, beyond a brief (possibly altered) notice in Josephus.

Sources (of varying quality)

• New Testament documents (Gospels; small sections in Acts and Paul, such as 1 Cor. 11; 15)

• Apocryphal gospels (Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas)

Scholarly criteria for evaluating information about Jesus

• Criterion of dissimilarity: Evidence that contradicts later Christian teachings is more likely to be historical. (Example: Jesus endorses observance of Jewish law in Matt. 5:17 despite the later rejection of Jewish law by most Christians.)

• Criterion of similarity: Evidence that appears to fit within the world of 1st c. CE Palestinian Judaism is more likely to be historical. (Example: Jesus’ denunciations of “the Jews” in John seem unlikely for one who was himself a Jew. More likely are passages that affirm Jesus’ connections with Judaism, such as John 4:22: “…salvation is from the Jews.”)

• Multiple attestations: Evidence that appears numerous times is more likely to be historical. (Example: The specific rituals of bread and wine at the Lord’s Supper are found in the Gospels and Paul’s writings; see Matt. 26 / Mark 14 / Luke 22; 1 Cor. 11.)

• Early or late: Evidence that appears to be from an earlier rather than a later date is more likely to be historical. (Example in John: Jesus appears less human and more divine than in the synoptic Gospels. Jesus is unemotional and in complete control of all situations, and various divine epithets are applied to him. It seems likely that John’s Jesus emerged after a period of theological speculation necessary to elevate Jesus’ status above that of a regular human.)

• Embarrassment: Evidence that might embarrass later Christians is more likely to be historical. (Example: Both Jesus and Paul claim that the world would end in their lifetimes or those of their followers; see 1 Thess. 4:17; Matt. 16:28 / Mark 9:1 / Luke 9:27.)

 

Important Passages

Gospels

Birth of Jesus (Matt. 1 / Luke 2)

Preaching of John the Baptist (Matt. 3 / Mark 1 / Luke 3 /John 1)

Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) / Sermon on the Plain (Luke 6)

Dispute over plucking grain on the Sabbath (Matt. 12 / Mark 2 / Luke 6)

Jesus denounces the Galile ancities that refused him (Matt. 11 / Luke 10)

Feeding the five thousand (Matt. 14 / Mark 6 / Luke 9 / John 6)

Peter’s confession of Jesus (Matt. 16 / Mark 8 / Luke 9 / John 6)

The Transfiguration (Matt. 17 / Mark 9 / Luke 9)

Jesus goes to Jerusalem (Matt. 19 / Mark 10 / Luke 9 / John 2)

Raising of Lazarus (John 11)

Jesus overturns the tables in the Temple courts (Matt. 21 / Mark 11 / Luke 19 / John 2)

Jesus denounces the Pharisees and scribes (Matt. 23 / Mark 12 / Luke 20)

Judas betrays Jesus (Matt. 26 / Mark 14 / Luke 22)

The Last Supper (Matt. 26 / Mark 14 / Luke 22; also, 1 Cor. 11)

The Crucifixion (Matt. 27 / Mark 15 / Luke 23 / John 19)

Appearances following the Resurrection (Matt. 28 / Luke 24 / John 20–21); see also 1 Cor. 15

“New command” of love (John 13; see also 1 John 2; 2 John)

Acts

Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit, and believers speaking in tongues (Acts 2)

Paul / Saul as persecutor of Christians (Acts 7–8)

Appearance of Jesus to Paul (Acts 9, 22, 26)

Conversion of Cornelius the centurion (Acts 10)

Debate in Jerusalem over admission of Gentiles (Acts 15)

Paul speaks in the Areopagus in Athens (Acts 17)

Pauline Letters

The equality of Jews and Gentiles (Rom. 2–3)

Abraham as the father of all who believe (Rom. 4; see also Gal. 3)

On lack of response by the Jews (Rom. 9–11)

On submission to worldly authorities (Rom. 13)

Paul defends his missionary activity (1 Cor. 9)

On faith, hope, and love (1C or. 13)

Description of a mystical ascension to heaven (2 Cor. 12)

Paul’s former persecution of Christians (Gal. 1; see also Phil. 3)

Conflict with Peter over food laws (Gal. 2)

“There is no longer slave or free…” (Gal. 3)

All previous gains are worthless compared to knowing Christ (Phil. 3)

Christ the image of the invisible God (Col. 1)

Imminent return of Jesus (1 Thess. 4–5)

Other Documents

Biblical models of faith (Heb. 11)

There is no faith apart from works (James 2)

The difficulties in understanding Paul (2 Pet. 3)

The fallen whore of Babylon (Rev. 17)

 

Glossary

apostle (from the Greek for “send”): an early Christian appointed to spread the faith; the word is typically associated with one of Jesus’ closest followers (see Matt. 10:2 / Luke 6:13) though Paul applies it to himself as well; see Gal 1:1.

beatitudes (from the Latin for “blessings”): the term applied to the collection of Jesus’ nine sayings of consolation and promises of justice delivered in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:3–11, beginning with “Blessed are the…” (See also Luke 6:20f.)

Dead Sea Scrolls: the collection of Jewish religious texts written between the 2nd c. BCE and the 1st c. CE, providing evidence for a sectarian form of Judaism contemporary with the New Testament. Members were likely former priests who rejected the Temple and Jerusalem as impure and fled to the desert after losing their positions following the Maccabean victory over Antiochus IV, when illegitimate priests were appointed in their stead. Texts include both the community’s own literature (sectarian texts covering subjects such as initiation into the group, religious law, prayer, and the end-time) and biblical and non-biblical texts previously known from other sources.

Gentile: one who is not a Jew

Gnosticism (from the Greek for “knowledge”): a modern designation for religious systems that connected knowledge (often secret) with salvation and freedom from a fallen and evil world. Such systems frequently included mythological accounts of creation and the appearance of evil, and a dualistic theology of two divine powers, usually a good god and a bad god. (The latter was sometimes even associated with the God of the Hebrew Bible.) Some Gnostics were Christian (and declared heretical by the Orthodox Christians), even though Gnosticism is not explicitly a Christian term. (Examples: the Gospel of Thomas; works by the second-century gnostics such as Marcion and Valentinus)

Hell / Gehenna / Hades: the abode of the dead; often connected with punishment and suffering. Also known as “gehenna,” (from Hebrew for “geihinnom,” or “Valley of Hinnom,” a cult site outside Jerusalem thought to be the site of child sacrifice) (see Matt. 5:22; 10:28; 23:15, 33; James 3:6).

Josephus: a 1st c. CE historian who fought in the Jewish war against Rome in 66–70 and, though taken captive, was saved by the emperor and wrote the only full-length chronicle of the conflict, The Jewish War. He also wrote three other works: The Jewish Antiquities, Against Apion, and his autobiography. The Antiquities contains a very brief mention of Jesus, along with slightly longer accounts of John the Baptist and James.

Judaizer: a Christian missionary who was most likely born a Jew and expected Gentiles who chose to follow Jesus to observe Jewish laws, such as those for circumcision, holidays, and the preparation of food (see Gal. 2; Acts 15:1). Judaizers were frequent opponents of Paul.

kerygma (from the Greek for “proclamation”): the Christian missionary message preached by Jesus’ followers

messiah (from the Hebrew for “anointed”; in Greek, translated “Christos”): the word “messiah” originally designated a Jewish leader anointed with oil as a sign of legitimacy, especially descendants of King David. Later, the word became connected with hopes for a new ruler of Israel. Messianic expectations in the late Second Temple period were diverse. For example, some Jews expected a military ruler, while others awaited a prophet or semi-divine messenger of God.

Mishnah & Talmud: the Mishnah is the earliest Rabbinic document (edited in the 3rd c. CE), and the Talmud (two editions, edited in the 5th c. and the 6th c.; also known as the Gemara) is, formally, a commentary on the Mishnah. Both contain diverse Rabbinic traditions on topics such as biblical interpretation, law, philosophy, history, and folklore. These works were composed during the formative years of early Christianity and provide evidence for contemporary developments in Judaism.

Nag Hammadi: a collection of previously unknown Christian documents discovered in the Egyptian desert in 1945. Most were gnostic texts, the Gospel of Thomas being the most important.

orthodoxy (from the Greek for “right belief”): a term used in order to support a group’s claim that they alone correctly understand the divine revelation and legitimately transmitted (in this case, Christian) doctrine from the earliest period. It was used by the group of Christians who would eventually emerge as the dominant form of Christianity as a way of describing themselves.

Parousia (from the Greek for “presence”): the occasion of Jesus’ expected return

Passion (from the Greek for “suffering”): the term for the narrative of Jesus’ trial and execution

Pharisees (possibly from the Hebrew for “separatists”): pious Jewish scribes in the Second Temple period dedicated to close study of the biblical text, especially in light of “oral law” (traditions of biblical interpretations) (see Mark 7:3). The Pharisees were forerunners of the Rabbis. The controversies between the Pharisees and Jesus, rather than reflecting great differences in their religious and social views, actually suggest significant similarities between the two sides. These types of conflicts often occur between groups that have many things in common and thus clash over the small issues that separate them (see Matt. 23).

Pastorals Epistles: three letters attributed to Paul—1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus—addressing pastoral issues such as proper leadership and ethical responsibilities

rabbi (from the Hebrew for “my master”): a quasi-formal designation, after 70 CE, for a Jew well-versed in biblical interpretation. The Rabbis, who have their roots in the religious practices of the Pharisees, originally emerged as a small movement of religious scribes and teachers, especially in northern Israel (the region of the Galilee) .Jesus is also addressed as “Rabbi” (see Matt. 26:49; Mark 9:5; John 1:38).

Sadducees: an elite Jewish group closely associated with the Temple and positions of leadership in the Second Temple period. The Sadducees accepted only the Torah as authoritative and rejected the interpretations of the Pharisees.

Sanhedrin: a council of Jewish leaders (usually empowered by Rome) to make legal and administrative decisions

Sicarii (from the Latin for “dagger”): Jews who assassinated social and political leaders suspected of collaboration with Rome. Judging by his name, Judas Iscariot may be related to this group.

Zealots: fiercely nationalistic and religious Jews who violently resisted Roman rule

 

Timeline

Mid 13th c. BCE: suggested date for the Exodus

1200–1020: period of the Judges

1020–1000: rule of King Saul

1000–960: rule of King David

960–922: rule of King Solomon (son of David)

922–722: divided kingdom (north and south ruled by separate kings)

722: Assyrians conquer northern kingdom; loss of the 10 northern tribes

Late 7th c. BCE: Josiah’s religious reforms

598, 586: two Babylonian invasions under Nebuchadnezzar result in the conquest of the southern kingdom and the exile of the elite of the Jewish society to Babylonia; the Jerusalem Temple was destroyed in 586

538–333: the Persian period

538: The defeat of the Babylonians by the Persian king Cyrus II; some from the exilic community return to the southern kingdom

520–515: The Jerusalem Temple is rebuilt

5th c.: Ezra and Nehemiah come to Judah from Babylonia and inaugurate religious and political reform

333–323: Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquers much of the ancient Near East, beginning the Hellenistic period, which leads to the widespread diffusion of Greek culture

301: Following Alexander’s death and the wars of succession, Alexander’s general Ptolemy receives Judah

198: Judah passes into control of the Seleucids under Antiochus III

175: Antiochus IV takes over rule in Judah

167–164: The Jews successfully revolt against Antiochus IV, led by the Maccabees (of the family of the Hasmoneans); the Temple is rededicated after idolatrous profanation (likely impure sacrifices on the altar)

63 BCE: Romans under Pompey conquer Judah; the period of Jewish self-rule ends

27 BCE–14 CE: rule of Octavian (Augustus), first Roman emperor; the end of the Roman Republic

4 BCE: suggested birth date of Jesus

14 CE–37 CE: rule of Emperor Tiberius

c. 30 CE: suggested date of Jesus’ crucifixion

37–41 CE: rule of Emperor Caligula

41–54 CE: rule of Emperor Claudius

c. 50–60 CE: Paul’s letters written

54–68 CE: rule of Emperor Nero

Early 60s CE: Paul probably executed in Rome

60–70 CE: suggested date for Gospel of Mark

69–79 CE: rule of Emperor Vespasian

70 CE: destruction of Jerusalem Temple in war against Rome

79–81 CE: rule of Emperor Titus

c. 80–90 CE: suggested date for Gospels of Matthew and Luke

81–96 CE: rule of Emperor Domitian

c. 90–100: suggested date for Gospel of John