The Hebrew Bible / Old Testament

 

Overall Content

Jewish Canon

In the Jewish tradition, the Bible is referred to as the “Hebrew Bible” or the “Tanach” (see Glossary), not the “Old Testament,” because “Old Testament” logically assumes there is a “New Testament,” which is absent from the Jewish tradition.

The Jewish canon divides the books of the Hebrew Bible into the following three groups.

Law		Prophets		Writings
Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy		Former prophets Joshua Judges 1 and 2 Samuel 1 and 2 Kings Later prophets Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel “The Twelve” (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi)		Psalms Job Proverbs Ruth Song of Songs Ecclesiastes Lamentations Esther Daniel Ezra-Nehemiah 1 and 2 Chronicles

Christian Canon

In the Christian tradition, the first part of the Bible is referred to as the “Old Testament,” though many contemporary Christians also use the term “Hebrew Bible.”

There remains some disagreement among Christian denominations about which books are included. Books considered canonical by Roman Catholics are printed in italics. They were removed from the Protestant Bible during the Reformation and placed at the end, in a section called “The Apocrypha” (see Glossary).

Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1 Samuel 2 Samuel 1 Kings 2 Kings 1 Chronicles 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Tobit Judith		Esther Additions to Esther Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Solomon Wisdom of Solomon Ecclesiasticus / Wisdom of Ben Sirach Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Baruch and Letter of Jeremiah Ezekiel Daniel		Additions to Daniel, including Susanna, Song of the Young Men, Bel and the Dragon Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi 1 and 2 Maccabees

 

Glossary

apocalyptic (from the Greek for “revelation”): a literary genre of ancient writings that disclose secret or hidden information about the future (especially the end-times). It often includes promises of imminent judgment of, and divine intervention into, a sinful world on behalf of the elect. It may also include visions or heavenly ascents, guided by angelic mediators. Sometimes the actual author is not known, such as when a text is said to derive from an earlier biblical hero. (Examples: Daniel 7–12 and Revelation; from the Pseudepigrapha, see 1 Enoch)

Apocrypha (from the Greek for “hidden writings”): Jewish texts originally found in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (Septuagint). The translations were made in the third to first centuries BCE. While they are canonical for Roman Catholics, Protestants place them at end of the Old Testament, and they are not canonical for Jews. (Examples: Tobit; Judith)

apodictic law: a form of biblical law that states general principles (“You shall / shall not…”), does not specify punishments, and is not designed for use in court. This is the opposite of casuistic law. (Example: Exod. 20:2–17)

BCE and CE: non-Christian abbreviations for “before the common era” (BC) and “during the common era” (AD), respectively

canon: a collection of books that a religious tradition judges authoritative or inspired (Example: the Hebrew Bible in Judaism)

casuistic law: a form of biblical “case law” that deals with specific circumstances, often with the use of the conditional phrase (“if…then”). This is the opposite of apodictic law. (Example: Exod. 21:1–22:17)

Decalogue: the Ten Commandments, in Exod. 20; Deut. 5

diaspora: Jewish communities outside Israel

eschatology: concerns about the end-times, especially when coupled with an expectation of a final judgment or dramatic reversal of the present unjust world order

exile: the period of roughly 50 years between Babylonia’s conquest of the southern kingdom of Judah in the early 6th c. BCE and Persia’s defeat of Babylonia in 538 BCE when a few thousand of the elite class were sent to live in Babylonia in order to pacify the conquered country

First Temple period: the period in Jewish history between the building of the Jerusalem Temple under King Solomon (10th century BCE) and the destruction of the first Temple by the Babylonians, in 586 BCE

Masoretic text: the text of the Hebrew Bible edited by Jewish scholars during the first millennium CE and used as the standard text today

monotheism: the belief that only one God exists. Differs from monolatry, the worship of one God without denying the existence of other gods. (Compare Gen. 31:53, “the God of Abraham and the God of Nahor,” and Isa. 45:5: “I am the Lord, there is no other; besides me there is no god.”)

Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the forefathers of the people of Israel, who are prominent in the book of Genesis

Pentateuch (from the Greek for “five books”): the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, also known as the Torah (Hebrew for “law” or “teaching”)

Pseudepigrapha (from the Greek for “false writings”): diverse Jewish texts originally written in Hebrew, Greek, or Aramaic from the third to the first centuries BCE. Like the Apocrypha, many of these texts are said to be the work of biblical heroes. They are not canonical for Jews, Protestants, or Roman Catholics, but their status varies among the Eastern Orthodox churches. (Examples: 1 Enoch; Jubilees; Letter of Aristeas; Sibylline Oracles; 3 and 4 Maccabees)

redactor: an editor responsible for collecting, organizing, and sometimes correcting earlier texts

Second Temple period: the period in Jewish history between the rebuilding of the second Jerusalem Temple after some Jews returned from exile in Babylonia (late sixth century BCE) and the destruction of the second Temple by the Romans in 70 CE

Septuagint (from the Greek for “seventy,” for 70 translators; abbreviated LXX): the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible created between the third and first centuries BCE. It was the primary translation for diaspora Jews and early Christians.

Sheol: the Hebrew name for the abode of the dead. A place cut off from life and God, though without any punishment or suffering (see Jacob in Gen. 37:35; Samuel in 1 Sam. 28:7–20). However, during the Second Temple Period it became increasingly connected to the torment of the wicked.

Syro-Ephraimite War (734–732 BCE): the conflict that a coalition of the northern kingdom, under Pekah, and Arameans, under Rezin, initiated against the southern kingdom, under Jotham and later his son Ahaz, in order to force the south to form a united front against the threatening Assyrians (2 Kings 16; Isa. 7). Ahaz sought protection by becoming a vassal to the Assyrians, who eventually destroyed first the Arameans and finally the northern kingdom (in 722).

Tanach or Tanak: a Hebrew acronym for the Hebrew Bible, from the three parts of the Hebrew Bible (T=Torah / Law, Instruction; N=Nevi’im /Prophets; CH / K=Ketuvim / Writings).

Tetragrammaton (from the Greek for “four letters”): the unvocalized name of God in the Hebrew Bible, sometimes written as “YHWH” or “Lord.”

wisdom: a literary genre of writings (such as proverbs and riddles) found throughout the ancient Near East. Wisdom writings contain guidance for a rational or moral life and explain the ways of the world, especially the issues of reward and punishment. They were possibly used in antiquity in the education of the elite. Few elements are distinctly Israelite or Jewish, and the writings reveal connections to neighboring peoples’ wisdom traditions. (Examples: Proverbs; Job; Ecclesiastes; also Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom of Solomon)

 

The Bible and the Ancient Near East

Relevant Archaeological Discoveries

• Merneptah Stele (13th c. BCE) An inscription recording the Egyptian pharaoh’s conquest of Israel, in the earliest non-biblical mention of Israel

• Mesha Stele / Moabite Stone (9th c. BCE) An inscription commemorating the Moabite king Mesha’s victory over the Israelite king Omri; the mass slaughter mentioned in the inscription, committed as an offering to the Moabite god Chemosh, may be similar to the slaughter of all people and even animals in the conquests in the book of Joshua (see 2 Kings 3; Josh. 6–10).

• Gezer Calendar (10th c. BCE) An inscription of an agricultural calendar, preserving a very old form of Hebrew

• Samaria Ostraca (8th c. BCE) Potsherds (pottery fragments) providing an important example of very early Hebrew writing. They contain short lists of names and places, and of goods to be delivered to the northern kingdom.

• Siloam Inscription (late 8th / early 7th c. BCE) An inscription in a water tunnel built under Jerusalem during the time of Hezekiah commemorating the occasion when diggers working from two directions finally met underground (confirms the account in 2 Kings 20:20).

• Sennacherib’s prism (late 8th c. BCE) An account of the Assyrian king’s battle against neighboring peoples and lands, including an attack on Jerusalem (see the accounts in 2 Kings 18–19).

• Black obelisk of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria (9th c. BCE) A victory monument that depicts King Jehu of Israel bowing before Shalmaneser and bringing him tribute (see 2 Kings 9–10).

• Lachish Ostraca (early 6th c. BCE) Short reports from the town of Lachish before it was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar

Related Literary Evidence

• Gilgamesh epic (2nd millennium BCE) A Sumerian story of a king seeking immortality in which the theme is the limitations of humanity. The epic contains parallels to the biblical flood account (Gen. 6–9).

• Hammurabi’s Code (18th c. BCE) An extensive Babylonian legal code containing parallels to the Covenant Code (Exod. 20–23)

• Amarna letters (14th c. BCE) Diplomatic notes between Egypt and the small cities of the region that will later be called Israel. The notes contain requests for help against marauding “habiru” (which might refer to the “Hebrews,” another name for the Israelites) (see Gen. 14:13; 40:15).

• Ugarit texts (14th or 13th c. BCE) Thousands of ancient Canaanite cuneiform tablets containing many different texts (some with parallel stories to those in the Bible), revealing a previously unknown form of writing.

• Enuma Elish (possibly 12th c. BCE) A Babylonian creation epic, the focus of which is warring gods and the conflict between chaos and order; it contains parallels to P’s creation account (Gen. 1). (See Hypothetical Sources in the Pentateuch, page 4.)

 

Important People

Jacob’s Twelve Sons

Jacob’s sons are the forefathers of the twelve tribes. Here they are listed by mother and in birth order (Gen. 29–30; 35).

• Leah (wife): Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah

• Bilhah (servant of Rachel): Dan, Naphtali

• Zilpah (servant of Leah): Gad, Asher

• Leah (again): Isaachar, Zebulun (and daughter Dinah)

• Rachel (wife): Joseph, Benjamin

Note: Later lists do not fully agree with the birth narrative (see Gen. 49; Num. 1; Deut. 33). It is likely that these differences can be explained by later events, such as the replacement of Joseph with his two sons Ephraim and Manasseh; the disappearance of Simeon; and the emergence of the Levites as a class of priests rather than, strictly speaking, a tribe.

Judges

The judges were mostly local rulers; they did not rule consecutively. An asterisk (*) denotes the most important judges.

• Othniel (the first judge; Judg. 3:7–11)*

• Ehud (killed the king Eglon and defeated the Moabites; Judg. 3:12–20)*

• Shamgar (Judg. 3:31)

• Deborah (charismatic leader and prophet; ruled with Barak; defeated Sisera; Judg. 4:1–5:31)*

• Gideon (also called Jerubbaal; defeated Midianites with a tiny army in order to demonstrate God’s power; rejected kingship; Judg. 6:1–8:32)*

• Abimelech (defeated Shechem, but failed in his attempt to be made king; Judg. 8:33–9:57)*

• Tolah (Judg. 10:1–2)

• Jair (Judg. 10:3–5)

• Jephthah (defeated the Ammonites, but had to sacrifice his daughter after rashly taking a vow in hopes of securing God’s favor; Judg. 10:6–12:7)*

• Ibzan (Judg. 12:8–10)

• Elon (Judg. 12:11–12)

• Abdon (Judg. 12:13–15)

• Samson (vowed to the Lord as a Nazirite by his mother; powerful and impulsive opponent of the Philistines; Judg. 13:1–16:31)*

Kings

All Israelite kings and all but three Judean kings (Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah) were denounced by the Deuteronomistic Historian (see below) for their unfaithfulness to YHWH. There is often a discrepancy of a few years between various lists of the kings.

Israel (northern kingdom)

• Jeroboam I (922–901 BCE)

• Nadab (901–900)

• Baasha (900–877)

• Elah (877–876)

• Zimri (876)

• Omri (876–869)

• Ahab (869–850)

• Ahaziah (850–849)

• Jehoram (849–842)

• Jehu (842–815)

• Jehoahaz (815–802)

• Jehoash (802–786)

• Zechariah (746–745)

• Shallum (745)

• Menahem (745–737)

• Pekahiah (737–736)

• Pekah (736–732)

• Hoshea (732–722)

Judah (southern kingdom)

• Rehoboam (922–915)

• Abijam (915–913)

• Asa (913–873)

• Jehoshaphat (873–849)

• Jehoram (849–842)

• Ahaziah (842)

• Athaliah (queen-mother; 842–837)

• Jehoash (837–800)

• Amaziah (800–783)

• Uzziah, also called Azariah (783–742)

• Jotham (742–732)

• Ahaz (732–715)

• Hezekiah (715–686)

• Manasseh (686–642)

• Amon (642–640)

• Josiah (640–609)

• Jehoahaz (609)

• Jehoiakim (609–598)

• Jehoiachin (598–597)

• Zedekiah (597–586)

The Prophets

Isaiah (likely composed of three different works from three different times)

• Isa. 1–39 / First Isaiah (8th c. BCE; Judah):

  • Preaches about the Assyrian threat

  • Harshly denounces moral failures and idolatrous practices, particularly the lack of faith in God

  • Offers promises of hope for the future, including an entirely transformed, Edenic world

• Isa. 40–55 / Second Isaiah (mid to late 6th c. BCE; Babylonia):

  • Announces an imminent end to exile with the victory over the Babylonians of the Persian king Cyrus II

  • Offers consolation, and hope for a new return to the land of Israel

• Isa. 56–66 / Third Isaiah (late 6th c. BCE; Judah):

  • Highly critical of post-exilic society, reflecting tensions between returnees and those who never left (as well as the descendants of both groups)

  • Describes conflicts over control of society, especially over Temple ritual

  • Is proto-sectarian, referring to emerging social divisions within Israel that would become exacerbated in future centuries

Jeremiah (late 7th and early 6th c. BCE; Judah)

• He preaches submission to God’s will (in this case, submission to Babylonia) rather than active resistance.

• He often complains of priests and rulers’ widespread hostility to his message of destruction and his demand for submission to what he perceived as God’s will for a sinful people.

• The book’s similarities to Deuteronomy suggest a later editor may have added material that fit with the Deuteronomistic theology of the conquest and destruction of Judah.

• A complicated work, likely composed of multiple sources, covering the periods both before and after the exile (though current order is not chronological)

• Contains sections of autobiography, biography, and sermons

• Different versions in the Hebrew and Greek (Septuagint) editions

Ezekiel (early 6th c. BCE; prophesied from Babylonia during the exile)

• From a priestly family, he was taken into exile in Babylonia.

• Performed symbolic acts to indict the people for their sinfulness and to warn of the coming disaste.

• Received enigmatic visions of God’s presence among the exilic community, and of the end-times and restoration of both Israel and Judah

• His lengthy concluding vision of a rebuilt Jerusalem Temple symbolizes God's return to a purified, Edenic Jerusalem.

Hosea (8th c. BCE; Israel)

• Undertakes a symbolic marriage to the prostitute Gomer to symbolize Israel’s unfaithfulness to God

• His vivid laments provide evidence for God’s abiding faithfulness to Israel inspite of Israel’s disobedience.

Joel (possibly post-exilic; location unknown, presumably Judah)

• Warns of the coming “day of the Lord” and the eventual return to Israel of God’s favor

Amos (8th c. BCE; from Judah, but preached in Israel)

• Condemns both the surrounding nations and Israel (especially the leadership)

• Critical of hollow ritualism as a substitute for just behavior (though not opposed to religious ritualism in itself)

• Final vision of the restoration of the Davidic dynasty in Judah may have been added later.

Obadiah (early 6th c. BCE; Judah)

• Angrily condemns the Edomites for attacking and looting Judah during the Babylonian assault

Jonah (post-exilic period; Judah)

• A disobedient prophet sent to rebuke a foreign people (the Ninevites)

• The humorous and ironic story of Jonah is possibly meant to satirize Israelite prophets and to illustrate that the God of Israelis even concerned with the Gentiles.

Micah (8th c. BCE; Judah)

• Contemporary of First Isaiah. A harsh critic of both Judah and Israel (“Samaria”), especially the leadership, for social injustice. Also, he reaffirms God’s promises to bless Jerusalem and the people, and offers visions of an entirely transformed future.

Nahum (late 7th c. BCE; Judah)

• Presents oracles of doom against the Assyrians on the occasion of the Babylonian assault on Nineveh

Habakkuk (late 7th or early 6th c. BCE; Judah)

• Against backdrop of Babylonian assault, complains to God because of the seemingly unjust suffering of his chosen people

Zephaniah (late 7th c. BCE; Judah, during rule of Josiah)

• Warns of judgment on Israel and the nations of the world on the “day of the Lord” and exhorts Israel to repent

• In what is possibly a late addition, concludes with reassurance that despite the people’s suffering God will eventually restore Jerusalem and show favor to his people

Haggai (late 6th c. BCE; Judah)

• Demands the appointment of God’s chosen Davidic ruler Zerubbabel

• Encourages renewal of religious life (especially Temple worship)

Zechariah (likely composed of two different works)

• Zech. 1–8 (late 6th c. BCE; Judah):

  • Offers symbolic and enigmatic visions of the future

  • Concerned with renewed Temple worship

• Zech. 9–14 (date unknown, likely from Second Temple period; Judah):

  • Presents imagery of God as deliverer and warrior on behalf of Israel

  • Envisions radically transformed world

Malachi (5th c. BCE; Judah)

• Critical of failure to uphold proper ritual practices at Temple

• Ends on note of eschatological hope

 

Neighboring Peoples

Assyrians (region of modern-day Syria and territory to the east)

• Began to gain strength in the 10th c. BCE

• Presented a serious threat to Israel and Judah in the 8th and 7th c. BCE

• Conquered Israel in 722 BCE, and instituted a policy of mass deportations of the people they conquered

• Defeated by the Babylonians in 612 BCE

Babylonians (modern-day Iraq)

• A culturally advanced civilization, famous for scholarship and architecture

• Most militarily powerful during the 7th and 6th c. BCE, when they attacked and conquered Judah

• Defeated by the Persians in 539 BCE

Canaanites

• The earliest inhabitants of the land of Israel (see Gen. 12; Exod. 6)

• Exercised a powerful religious and cultural influence on Israel

• Israelite religion adopted many Canaanite influences, such as names and imagery for God.

• Because of the Canaanites’ similarity and proximity to the Israelites, their practices and beliefs were seen as constant threat to the Israelite religion (see Deut. 20:16–20).

Egyptians

• Their land was traditionally divided into two regions, upper (southern) and lower (northern) Egypt.

• Maintained a mostly stable empire for many centuries, and frequently asserted their power over other parts of the ancient Near East

• Struggled for control of the region against other empires, such as the Babylonian and the Assyrian

• Enslaved the descendants of Joseph after they had lived there for generations (Exod. 1)

• Traditionally, scholars believed that Ramses II, who ruled Egypt in the 13th c. BCE) was the pharaoh of Exodus.

Persians (modern-day Iran)

• Extended their power west to Israel by the 7th c. BCE

• Under Cyrus II (“the Great”), defeated the Babylonians

  • The Bible presents him as a ruler anointed by God (a “messiah,” meaning simply “the anointed one”) to bring exiled Jews back from Babylonia (Isa. 44–45).

  • He was generally a benevolent ruler, who encouraged conquered peoples to preserve their native cultures.

• The Persian dualistic religion Zoroastrianism may have influenced Jewish apocalypticism.

• Defeated by Alexander the Great in 333 BCE

Greeks

• Exercised a powerful cultural and economic influence throughout the region during the first millennium

• Israel was conquered by Alexander the Great (late 4th c. BCE), which brought it into the larger Hellenistic world of the ancient Near East and eastern Mediterranean. The result a mix of native and Greek social and political cultures.

The Philistines

• A foreign “sea people” who came from southeast Europe (Greece, Asia Minor, and Cyprus) and invaded and conquered the Mediterranean coast around 1200 BCE

• Often in conflict with Israel (see 1 Sam. 4–7)

• Knowledge of how to make iron gave them a powerful military advantage

 

Important Passages

Creation / Garden of Eden (Gen. 1, 2–3)

Noah and the Flood (Gen. 6–9)

Call of Abraham (Gen. 12)

Promise to Abraham (Gen. 15, 17)

Binding of Isaac (Gen. 22)

The Joseph novella (Gen. 37, 39–47, 50)

The burning bush (Exod. 3–4)

The 10 Plagues (Exod. 7–12)

Crossing the Red Sea (Exod. 14)

The Decalogue / Ten Commandments (Exod. 20; Deut. 5)

The Golden Calf (Exod. 32)

The sending of the spies (Num. 13–14)

The shema / declaration of God’s oneness (Deut. 6)

Moses’ death (Deut. 34)

Conquest of Jericho (Josh. 6)

Theological explanation of Israel’s success and failure (Judg. 2–3)

Deborah (Judg. 4–5); Samson (Judg. 13–16)

Birth and call of Samuel (1 Sam. 1–3)

Ascension of Saul (1 Sam. 10–11)

David defeats Goliath (1 Sam. 17)

Ascension of David (2 Sam. 1–2)

David and Batsheba (2 Sam. 11)

Ascension of Solomon (1 Kings 1–2)

Israel and Judah separate; end to united kingdom (1 Kings 12)

Conquest of the north by the Assyrians (2 Kings 17)

Destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (2 Kings 25)

Vision of Edenic future (Isa. 2)

Servant songs of Isaiah (Isa. 42; 49; 50; 52–53)

Vision of God’s chariot going into exile (Ezek. 1)

“Dry bones” vision of Ezekiel (Ezek. 37)

Divine Shepherd psalm (Ps. 23)

Lament over Jerusalem (Ps. 137)

In praise of a capable wife (Prov. 31)

God answers Job out of the whirlwind (Job 38–41)

“Everything has its time” (Eccles. 3)

Daniel in the lion’s den (Dan. 6)

Ezra denounces mixed marriages (Ezra 9–10; also Neh. 13)

 

Topics in Modern Biblical Scholarship

Hypothetical Sources in the Pentateuch

The “Documentary Hypothesis” posits that the Bible is a composition of earlier texts (or sources). It is associated above all with the 19th c. German scholar Julius Wellhausen. J, E, and P are in Gen. through Num. D is in Deut. Some scholars no longer differentiate between E and J, labelling both “non-P.”

J (for Yahwist, with “YHWH” as the name of God)

• Possible date: Mid 10th c. BCE

• Likely arose during the successful period of the united kingdom, when promises to earlier generations of land and numerous descendants were believed to be fulfilled

• Glorifies Davidic and Solomonic rule

• A southern source, with a special focus on Judah

• Interested in promise and fulfillment

• Interested in conflicts between brothers and triumph of the younger brother over the older brother (Cain and Abel; Jacob and Esau; David and his brothers; Solomon and David’s other sons who competed for the throne)

• God is often anthropomorphic (walks in Garden in Gen. 3; negotiates with Abraham, etc.)

E (for Elohist, with “Elohim” as the name of God)

• Possible date: 9th or 8th c. BCE

• Not clear whether E ever existed as an independent source or only as a series of additions and changes to the J narrative.

• Likely arose following dissolution of united kingdom

• A northern source

• Emphasis on divine communication through dreams and prophecy; God is distant.

• Emphasis on “the fear of God” (see Gen. 20)

P (for Priestly)

• Widespread scholarly agreement that it is from the 6th c. BCE, either during the period of exile or shortly afterward

• Presents vision of an orderly world under God’s complete control

• Reflects concerns with onging relationship between Israel and God (especially the theme of the covenant), despite disaster and even exile

• Strong interest in defining ritual and cultic practices, such as sacrifice and Temple worship, that represent God’s continuing concern for Israel

• Focus on religious activities that can preserve the identity of a community in exile, such as the Sabbath and circumcision (see Gen. 1; 17)

• Inclusion of genealogies is an effort to establish a sense of multi-generational stability during tumultuous times (see Gen. 5; 11).

• Emphasis on legitimate Aaronic priesthood

D (for Deuteronomy)

• Probably the book found by Josiah’s priest in the Temple (2 Kings 22)

• Likely date: late 7th c. BCE

• Legitimates Josiah’s religious reforms

• Strongly demands obedience to God alone

• Emphasizes God’s covenant with Israel

  • Israel’s history is explained theologically: fidelity to the laws of the covenant leads to reward, while disobedience is punished (see Deut. 27–28).

  • Frequently uses certain phrases (such as “statutes and ordinances”; “this day”; “your heart”)

  • Identifies Jerusalem alone as the legitimate place of worship (“place where God will choose to put his name” [see Deut. 12])

  • Contains diverse laws covering all facets of Israelite life (such as agricultural practice, priestly rituals, criminal justice statutes, rules of war, and family law)

  • Repeats (with small alterations) many of the laws found elsewhere in the Pentateuch

  • Places a high value on separation from idolatrous neighboring peoples

Other Hypothetical Sources

Legal codes

• Covenant Code (Exod. 20–23)

  • Laws suited for small-scale, intimate village life. Focus on agricultural practices, family law, torts and other conficts, communal rituals, rules for slavery.

• Holiness Code (Lev. 17–26)

  • Strong interest in proper social behavior (such as respect for elders and appropriate sexual behavior) and precise ritual activity

  • Repeated refrain, “You shall be holy as I [God] am holy” (see Lev. 19:2; 20:26), connects biblical law observance with sanctification of daily life and imitation of God’s holiness

Decalogu

• Ethical Decalogue (Exod. 20; Deut. 5)

• Ritual Decalogue (Exod. 34)

Parallel Passages / Doublets

• Creation account (Gen. 1–2 / 3)

• Wife / sister ruse (Gen. 12 / 20 / 26)

• Promise to Abraham (Gen. 15 / 17)

• Jacob at Bethel (Gen. 28 / 35)

• Call of Moses (Exod. 3–4 / 6)

• Decalogue (Exod. 20 / Deut. 5)

• Moses striking the rock (Exod. 17 / Num. 20)

• Moses striking the rock (Exod. 17 / Num. 20)

• Chronicler and Deuteronomic Historian: History from Saul to the fall of Judah (1 Sam. 31–2 Kings 25 / 1 Chron. 9–2 Chron. 36)

Deuteronomistic History

Includes narrative of the death of Moses through the fall of the southern kingdom in 586 BCE(Josh., Judg., 1 & 2 Sam., 1 & 2 Kings). Written from a Deuteronomist theological perspective.

• Israel and God have a covenantal relationship that God originally initiated in his promises of land and descendants to the Patriarchs.

• God upholds his side of the covenant by maintaining his love and care for the people and providing them with lives of security and safety in the promised land.

• The people of Israel uphold their side of the covenant by remaining faithful to God alone, avoiding worship of other gods, and carrying out all the commandments of the Law.

• Misfortune results above all from the people’s failure to be faithful to God.

• Reflects a southern (Davidic) bias by demanding that all worship take place at one central location, understood as the Temple in Jerusalem.

• Judean kings Hezekiah (2 Kings 18–20) and Josiah (2 Kings 22–23) are heroes to the Deuteronomic Historian for their attempts to ban worship of other gods and eliminate sacrificial sites other than the Jerusalem Temple.

Two theories of redaction:

• The “Single-Redactor” theory: Argument (associated with Martin Noth, among others) that the theological and literary consistencies in the Deuteronomistic History reveal the work of an exilic, 6th c. BCE historian who shaped the received narratives into a single account, provided transitions, and added connecting speeches (such as Josh. 24) in order to explain the entire history of Israel up to the destruction by Babylonia.

• The “Double-Redactor” theory: Argument (associated with Frank Moore Cross, among others) that accepts some of Noth’s views about the 6th c. exilic redactor who sought to shape narrative materials in order to explain the eventual destruction of the southern kingdom, but posits an earlier redactor responsible for collecting traditions during the time of Josiah (late 7th c. BCE). This first redactor, just before the exile, narrates the Deuteronomistic History in order to support the religious innovations of Josiah, one of the great southern kings, who was responsible for centralizing Israelite worship in Jerusalem and tried to eliminate worship of gods other than YHWH.

Theories of the Conquest

There are three theories to explain how the Israelites came to occupy the land of Israel, in light of the divergent accounts in Joshua (in which the Israelites rapidly enter the land, defeat the local peoples, and divide the land among the tribes) and Judges (in which the Israelites have some success conquering small areas of land but also coexist with many of the native peoples; the land remains far from unified under Israelite rule).

• External conquest: This traditional theory largely relies upon the book of Joshua. Scholars argue that the narrative of a rapid destruction of important cities such as Jericho, Ai, and Bethel represent a successful military campaign against the inhabitants of the land. However, the archaeological evidence is highly contested.

• Migration: This theory holds that the entry took place over a long period, mostly peacefully, as different peoples moved into the land in different regions and only slowly joined up to form a political structure of twelve tribes.

• Internal uprising: This theory (associated with Mendenhall and Gottwald), building up onwork in modern anthropology and sociology, proposes that a large group of poor, rural peasants, possibly joined by a small number of outsiders who may have been escaping slavery in Egypt, rose up against a wealthy minority that controlled much of the land.